Thomas Hardy rose to prominence first as a novelist. Publishers rejected his early poems, and this influenced him to pursue novel writing. By the 1890s, the financial success of his novels allowed him to write poetry full time (Gibson, Dictionary of Literary Biography). He published his first volume of poetry, Wessex Poems, in December 1898 (Millgate, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography). Before this volume, he had published only two poems: “The Bride-Night Fire” in the Gentleman’s Magazine in 1875, and “Lines” in the Pall Mall Gazette in 1890 (Hardy, Complete Works 93, 104). Hardy proposed that he cover the costs of publication, but Harper & Brothers refused (Gibson, Dictionary of Literary Biography). Hardy’s proposal to his publisher reveals his uncertainty over his success as a poet, even at the age of fifty-eight. His first volume is a collection of 51 poems from the 1860s up to the 1890s: seventeen date from the 1860s, three from the 1870s, one from the 1880s, and the rest are likely from the 1890s (Gibson, Dictionary of Literary Biography). Hardy did not publish his poems in chronological order, and some of them are undated. Fortunately, scholar Dennis Taylor has created an ordered list of his poetry (Taylor 35-42). Although we can find many other 19th century poems in Hardy’s 20th century volumes – of which there are seven – Wessex Poems is the most Victorian in terms of date of composition.
Hardy’s style in this first volume varies widely, and he even includes 31 of his own illustrations to accompany the poems (Millgate, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography).
Hardy's illustration for "Nature's Questioning" (source: photo taken of book in Special Collections at University of Victoria Library)
The title of the volume uses Hardy’s fame as the Wessex novelist to promote sales (Gibson, Dictionary of Literary Biography). Genres range from ballad, narrative, Petrarchan and Shakespearean sonnet to lyric. Hardy writes four of the sonnets in the voice of a woman, and he sets several narratives during the Napoleonic era (Tomalin 280). Topics include love, loss, crisis of faith, time, change, death, isolation, and aging. “I Look into My Glass” deals with aging and isolation, “Friends Beyond” explores the transience of life, and “Neutral Tones” mourns a loss of love (Gibson, Thomas Hardy 140-1). Influenced by Darwin’s On the Origin of Species from 1859, Hardy questions Christian promises of heaven in “A Sign-Seeker” and “The Impercipient” (Pinion 262). The speaker in “Nature’s Questioning” cannot determine whether life derives from a “Vast Imbecility,” an “Automaton,” or a “high Plan.” He concludes that “Earth’s old glooms and pains / Are still the same, and Life and Death are neighbours nigh” (Hardy ll. 86-7).
Wessex Poems received mixed reviews, and George Meredith’s exclamation captures the public’s confusion over Hardy’s switch to poetry: “what induces Hardy to commit himself to verse!” (Millgate 364). His novels were far more popular than his poetry at this time: one hundred thousand editions of Tess of the d’Urbervilles sold annually, while only 500 copies of Wessex Poems sold over five years (Gibson, Dictionary of Literary Biography). A few of Hardy’s friends, including Leslie Stephen, Edmund Gosse, Theodore Watts-Dunton, and Algernon Charles Swinburne, offered praise (Pinion 262; Millgate 365). Hardy replied to Gosse that “the poems were just lying about, and I did not quite know what to do with them” (Gibson, Thomas Hardy 141). In response to critical confusion over his switch to verse, he mentioned to Gosse that “to indulge in rhymes was my original weakness, and the prose only an afterthought” (Gibson, Thomas Hardy 141). Hardy lamented that contemporary poetry had become “the art of saying nothing with mellifluous preciosity,” and he acknowledged that his inclination to privilege content over form challenged this trend (Pinion 262). Critic Lionel Johnson referred to Hardy’s poems as “arresting, strenuous, [and] sometimes admirable” (Millgate 364). The Saturday Review dismissed Wessex Poems as “this curious and wearisome volume, these many slovenly, slipshod, uncouth verses, stilted in sentiment, poorly conceived and worse wrought” (Millgate,Oxford Dictionary of National Biography). The reviewer adds that “it is impossible to understand why the bulk of this volume was published at all – why [Hardy] did not himself burn the verse, lest it should fall into the hands of the indiscreet literary executor, and mar his fame when he was dead” (Millgate,Oxford Dictionary of National Biography).
Hardy's illustration for "Thoughts of Phena" (source: photo taken of book in Special Collections at University of Victoria Library)
Hardy's illustration for "In a Eweleaze near Weatherbury" (source: photo taken of book in Special Collections at University of Victoria Library)
Hardy’s official biography maintains that in his poetry Hardy adhered to his friend Stephen’s opinion that “the ultimate aim of the poet should be to touch our hearts by showing his own” (Gibson, Thomas Hardy 139). Furthermore, Hardy explains in the preface to Wessex Poems that the poems are “in a large degree dramatic or personative in conception” (Gibson, Thomas Hardy 138). Hardy’s wife Emma also gave a cold reception to the volume. Because Hardy weaves his own experience into these poems, his allusions to women other than Emma are obvious. He implies in “Thoughts of Phena” that he preferred his cousin Tryphena Sparks over Emma, and he mourns the loss of Sparks’ love in “Her Immortality” and “In a Eweleaze near Weatherbury” (Pinion 263). Emma considered “The Ivy-Wife” to be a personal attack against her (Tomalin 280), and she felt that “Ditty,” the only poem addressed to her, hardly made up for the allusions to other women in Hardy’s past and present that include Sparks, Eliza Nicholls, and Florence Henniker (Millgate 365).
TS/Engl386/Fall2012/UVic
Works Cited
Gibson, James. Thomas Hardy: A Literary Life. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996. Print.
Gibson, James. "Thomas Hardy." British Poets, 1880-1914. Ed. Donald E. Stanford. Detroit: Gale Research, 1983. Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 19. Literature Resource Center. Web. 20 January 2016.
Hardy, Thomas. The Complete Poetical Works of Thomas Hardy. Ed. Samuel Hynes. Oxford: University Press, 1982. Print.
Thomas Hardy rose to prominence first as a novelist. Publishers rejected his early poems, and this influenced him to pursue novel writing. By the 1890s, the financial success of his novels allowed him to write poetry full time (Gibson, Dictionary of Literary Biography). He published his first volume of poetry, Wessex Poems, in December 1898 (Millgate, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography). Before this volume, he had published only two poems: “The Bride-Night Fire” in the Gentleman’s Magazine in 1875, and “Lines” in the Pall Mall Gazette in 1890 (Hardy, Complete Works 93, 104). Hardy proposed that he cover the costs of publication, but Harper & Brothers refused (Gibson, Dictionary of Literary Biography). Hardy’s proposal to his publisher reveals his uncertainty over his success as a poet, even at the age of fifty-eight. His first volume is a collection of 51 poems from the 1860s up to the 1890s: seventeen date from the 1860s, three from the 1870s, one from the 1880s, and the rest are likely from the 1890s (Gibson, Dictionary of Literary Biography). Hardy did not publish his poems in chronological order, and some of them are undated. Fortunately, scholar Dennis Taylor has created an ordered list of his poetry (Taylor 35-42). Although we can find many other 19th century poems in Hardy’s 20th century volumes – of which there are seven – Wessex Poems is the most Victorian in terms of date of composition.
Hardy’s style in this first volume varies widely, and he even includes 31 of his own illustrations to accompany the poems (Millgate, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography).
The title of the volume uses Hardy’s fame as the Wessex novelist to promote sales (Gibson, Dictionary of Literary Biography). Genres range from ballad, narrative, Petrarchan and Shakespearean sonnet to lyric. Hardy writes four of the sonnets in the voice of a woman, and he sets several narratives during the Napoleonic era (Tomalin 280). Topics include love, loss, crisis of faith, time, change, death, isolation, and aging. “I Look into My Glass” deals with aging and isolation, “Friends Beyond” explores the transience of life, and “Neutral Tones” mourns a loss of love (Gibson, Thomas Hardy 140-1). Influenced by Darwin’s On the Origin of Species from 1859, Hardy questions Christian promises of heaven in “A Sign-Seeker” and “The Impercipient” (Pinion 262). The speaker in “Nature’s Questioning” cannot determine whether life derives from a “Vast Imbecility,” an “Automaton,” or a “high Plan.” He concludes that “Earth’s old glooms and pains / Are still the same, and Life and Death are neighbours nigh” (Hardy ll. 86-7).
Wessex Poems received mixed reviews, and George Meredith’s exclamation captures the public’s confusion over Hardy’s switch to poetry: “what induces Hardy to commit himself to verse!” (Millgate 364). His novels were far more popular than his poetry at this time: one hundred thousand editions of Tess of the d’Urbervilles sold annually, while only 500 copies of Wessex Poems sold over five years (Gibson, Dictionary of Literary Biography). A few of Hardy’s friends, including Leslie Stephen, Edmund Gosse, Theodore Watts-Dunton, and Algernon Charles Swinburne, offered praise (Pinion 262; Millgate 365). Hardy replied to Gosse that “the poems were just lying about, and I did not quite know what to do with them” (Gibson, Thomas Hardy 141). In response to critical confusion over his switch to verse, he mentioned to Gosse that “to indulge in rhymes was my original weakness, and the prose only an afterthought” (Gibson, Thomas Hardy 141). Hardy lamented that contemporary poetry had become “the art of saying nothing with mellifluous preciosity,” and he acknowledged that his inclination to privilege content over form challenged this trend (Pinion 262). Critic Lionel Johnson referred to Hardy’s poems as “arresting, strenuous, [and] sometimes admirable” (Millgate 364). The Saturday Review dismissed Wessex Poems as “this curious and wearisome volume, these many slovenly, slipshod, uncouth verses, stilted in sentiment, poorly conceived and worse wrought” (Millgate,Oxford Dictionary of National Biography). The reviewer adds that “it is impossible to understand why the bulk of this volume was published at all – why [Hardy] did not himself burn the verse, lest it should fall into the hands of the indiscreet literary executor, and mar his fame when he was dead” (Millgate,Oxford Dictionary of National Biography).
Hardy’s official biography maintains that in his poetry Hardy adhered to his friend Stephen’s opinion that “the ultimate aim of the poet should be to touch our hearts by showing his own” (Gibson, Thomas Hardy 139). Furthermore, Hardy explains in the preface to Wessex Poems that the poems are “in a large degree dramatic or personative in conception” (Gibson, Thomas Hardy 138). Hardy’s wife Emma also gave a cold reception to the volume. Because Hardy weaves his own experience into these poems, his allusions to women other than Emma are obvious. He implies in “Thoughts of Phena” that he preferred his cousin Tryphena Sparks over Emma, and he mourns the loss of Sparks’ love in “Her Immortality” and “In a Eweleaze near Weatherbury” (Pinion 263). Emma considered “The Ivy-Wife” to be a personal attack against her (Tomalin 280), and she felt that “Ditty,” the only poem addressed to her, hardly made up for the allusions to other women in Hardy’s past and present that include Sparks, Eliza Nicholls, and Florence Henniker (Millgate 365).
TS/Engl386/Fall2012/UVic
Works Cited
Gibson, James. Thomas Hardy: A Literary Life. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996. Print.
Gibson, James. "Thomas Hardy." British Poets, 1880-1914. Ed. Donald E. Stanford. Detroit: Gale Research, 1983. Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 19. Literature Resource Center. Web. 20 January 2016.
Hardy, Thomas. The Complete Poetical Works of Thomas Hardy. Ed. Samuel Hynes. Oxford: University Press, 1982. Print.
Hardy, Thomas. Wessex Poems. London: Harper & Brothers, 1898. Print.
Millgate, Michael. “Hardy, Thomas (1840-1928).” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. 2006. Web. 19 January 2016.
Millgate, Michael. Thomas Hardy: A Biography Revisited. Oxford: University Press, 2004. Print.
Pinion, F. B. Thomas Hardy: His Life and Friends. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992. Print.
Taylor, Dennis. “The Chronology of Hardy’s Poetry.” Victorian Poetry 37.1 (Spring 1999): 1-58. Web. 21 January 2016.
Tomalin, Claire. Thomas Hardy. New York: Penguin Press, 2007. Print.